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How laypersons see culture

The five dimensions Hofstede uses to distinguish between national cultures are:

Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner use seven dimensions for their model of culture:

Aims of cross-cultural analysis

How do we define culture?

Values - Values are ideas that tell what in life is considered important.

Norms - Norms consists of expectations of how people should behave in different situations.

Artefacts - Things or material culture - reflects the culture's values and norms but are tangible and manufactured by man,New Jersey Holiday Vacations - Things to Do in the Winter_33808..

How the social sciences study and analyze culture

Culture consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, ceremonies and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system. (Adapted from source: Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Cross-cultural analysis often plots 'dimensions' such as orientation to time, space, communication, competitiveness, power etc., as complimentary pairs of attributes and different cultures are positioned in a continuum between these.

Universalism vs Particularism (what is more important - rules or relationships?)

Individualism vs Communitarianism (do we function in a group or as an individual?)

Neutral vs Emotional (do we display our emotions or keep them in check?)

Specific vs Diffuse (how far do we get involved?)

Achievement vs Ascription (do we have to prove ourselves to gain status or is it given to us just because we are a part of a structure?)

Attitude to Time

Past- / present- / future-orientatedness


Sequential time vs Synchronic time(do we do things one at a time or several things at once?)

"They just have a different culture," people say about those whose behaviour they don't understand but have to tolerate.

Generally culture can be seen as consisting of three elements:

Hofstede dimensions to distinguish between cultures

Cross-cultural analysis could be a very perplexing field to understand with many different viewpoints, aims and concepts. The origins of cross-cultural analysis in the 19th century world of colonialism was strongly grounded in the concept of cultural evolution, which claimed that all societies progress through an identical series of distinct evolutionary stages.

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Trying to define as complex a phenomenon as culture with just two layers proved quite a challenge and the 'Onion' model arose. Geert Hofstede (1991) proposed a set of four layers, each of which includes the lower level or is a result of the lower level. According to this view, 'culture' is like an onion that can be peeled, layer-by layer to reveal the content. Hofstede sees culture as "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another."

Nowadays there are many types of Cross-cultural comparisons. One method is comparison of case studies. Controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation is another form of comparison. Typically anthropologists and other social scientists favor the third type called Cross-cultural studies, which uses field data from many societies to examine the scope of human behaviour and to test hypotheses about human behavior and culture.

Typically anthropologists and social scientists tend to study people and human behavior among exotic tribes and cultures living in far off places rather than do field work among white-collared literate adults in modern cities. Advances in communication and technology and socio-political changes started transforming the modern workplace yet there were no guidelines based on research to help people interact with other people from other cultures. To address this gap arose the discipline of cross-cultural analysis or cross-cultural communication. The main theories of cross-cultural communication draw from the fields of anthropology, sociology, communication and psychology and are based on value differences among cultures. Edward T. Hall, Geert Hofstede, Fons Trompenaars, Shalom Schwartz and Clifford Geertz are some of the major contributors in this field.

"You don't have any culture," is what people say to you when you put your feet on the table at lunchtime or spit in front of guests.

Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press
French, W.L. and C.H. Bell (1979). Organization development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Hofstede, Geert "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind", 1997
Holden, Nigel 2001, Cross-Cultural Management: A Knowledge Management Perspective, Financial Times Management

Criticism of current models
One of the weaknesses of cross-cultural analysis has been the inability to transcend the tendency to equalize culture with the concept of the nation state. A nation state is a political unit consisting of an autonomous state inhabited predominantly by a people sharing a common culture, history, and language or languages. In real life, cultures do not have strict physical boundaries and borders like nation states. Its expression and even core beliefs can assume many permutations and combinations as we move across distances.

There are many models of cross-cultural analysis currently valid. The 'Iceberg' and the 'Onion' models are widely known. The popular 'Iceberg model' of culture developed by Selfridge and Sokolik, 1975 and W.L. French and C.H. Bell in 1979, identifies a visible area consisting of behaviour or clothing or symbols and artifacts of some form and a level of values or an invisible level.

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Bibliography and suggested reading:

It is a daunting challenge to convey the findings of research and field work and discuss cross-cultural issues in diverse contexts such as corporate culture, workplace culture and inter cultural competency as laypeople tend to use the word 'culture' to refer to something refined, artistic and exclusive to a certain group of "artists" who function in a separate sphere than ordinary people in the workplace. Some typical allusions to culture:

Controlled comparison examines similar characteristics of a few societies while cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack of relationships between certain traits in question. The anthropological method of holocultural analysis or worldwide cross-cultural analysis is designed to test or develop a proposition through the statistical analysis of data on a sample of ten or more non literate societies from three or more geographical regions of the world. In this approach, cultural traits are taken out of the context of the whole culture and are compared with cultural traits in widely diverse cultures to determine patterns of regularities and differences within the broad base of the study.

Culture has an interpretative function for the members of a group, which share that particular culture. Although all members of a group or society might share their culture, expressions of culture-resultant behaviour are modified by the individuals' personality, upbringing and life-experience to a considerable degree. Cross-cultural analysis aims at harnessing this utilitarian function of culture as a tool for increasing human adaptation and improving communication.

Cross-cultural communication or inter cultural communication looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds try to communicate. It also tries to produce some guidelines, which help people from different cultures to better communicate with each other.

Cross-cultural management is seen as a discipline of international management focusing on cultural encounters, which aims to discover tools to handle cultural differences seen as sources of conflict or miscommunication.

Culture is the section in the newspaper where they review theatre, dance performances or write book reviews etc.

Power distance, which measures the extent to which members of society accept how power is distributed unequally in that society.

Individualism tells how people look after themselves and their immediate family only in contrast with Collectivism, where people belong to in-groups (families,Cheap Samsung Mobile Phone, clans or organizations) who look after them in exchange for loyalty.
The dominant values of Masculinity, focussing on achievement and material success are contrasted with those of Femininity, which focus on caring for others and quality of life.

Uncertainty avoidance measures the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations.

Confucian dynamism. This Long-term versus Short-term Orientation measured the fostering of virtues related to the past, i.e., respect for tradition, importance of keeping face and thrift.

Cultural anthropologists focus on symbolic culture whereas archaeologists focus on material and tangible culture. Sociobiologists study instinctive behavior in trying to explain the similarities, rather than the differences between cultures. They believe that human behavior cannot be satisfactorily explained entirely by 'cultural', 'environmental' or 'ethnic' factors. Some sociobiologists try to understand the many aspects of culture in the light of the concept of the meme,autographed jersey, first introduced by Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene,plastic bags. Dawkins suggests the existence of units of culture - memes - roughly analogous to genes in evolutionary biology. Although this view has gained some popular currency, other anthropologists generally reject it.

Origins and evolution of Cross-cultural analysis
The first cross-cultural analyzes done in the West, were by anthropologists like Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H Morgan in the 19th century. Anthropology and Social Anthropology have come a long way since the belief in a gradual climb from stages of lower savagery to civilization, epitomized by Victorian England. Nowadays the concept of "culture" is in part a reaction against such earlier Western concepts and anthropologists argue that culture is "human nature," and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically and communicate such abstractions to others.

Julia Carrick, chief executive of Walpole said: “This year’s award nominees represent some of the most exciting and dynamic companies in the luxury industry.

There is some criticism in the field that this approach is out of phase with global business today, with transnational companies facing the challenges of the management of global knowledge networks and multicultural project teams, interacting and collaborating across boundaries using new communication technologies.

The origin of the word culture comes from the Latin verb colere = "tend, guard, cultivate, till". This concept is a human construct rather than a product of nature. The use of the English word in the sense of "cultivation through education" is first recorded in 1510. The use of the word to mean "the intellectual side of civilization" is from 1805; that of "collective customs and achievements of a people" is from 1867. The term Culture shock was first used in 1940.

Some writers like Nigel Holden (2001) suggest an alternative approach, which acknowledges the growing complexity of inter- and intra-organizational connections and identities, and offers theoretical concepts to think about organizations and multiple cultures in a globalizing business context.

In spite of all the shortcomings and criticisms faced by the Hofstede model, it is very much favoured by trainers and researchers. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, it is a wonderful and easy to use tool to quantify cultural differences so that they can be discussed. Discussing and debating differences is after all the main method of training and learning. Secondly, Hofstede's research at IBM was conducted in the workplace, so Hofstede tools brings cross-cultural analysis closer to the business side of the workplace, away from anthropology, which is a matter for universities.

There are literally hundreds of different definitions as writers have attempted to provide the all-encompassing definition.

Culture is what parents teach their kids and grandparents teach their grandchildren.

Trompenaars dimensions to distinguish between cultures
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) adopt a similar onion-like model of culture. However, their model expands the core level of the very basic two-layered model, rather than the outer level. In their view, culture is made up of basic assumptions at the core level. These 'basic assumptions' are somewhat similar to 'values' in the Hofstede model.

Different types of cross-cultural comparison methods

"Great!" he responded, as he stood as stationary as a car with a dead battery.

In order to prepare for the group, Mike and I left the previous evening, stocking up on supplies and stopping for dinner in the jewel state of New Jersey. I understand that it had just adopted the new state slogan of "Jersey: what's that smell?"

As the sun descended behind the mountain, a quiet descended on the hut. The faces, reflecting the aches of their muscles, settled into satisfaction. The flames, burning below the chafing dishes, heated the food, and wafts of hot goulash filled the room, accompanied by the dumplings and the spaetzel. Pear-filled Schnapps glasses lined the table. And Austrian music permeated the air.

"I'm sure they will leave at 7:00 and be here at 9:00," he attempted to reason.

"How long does it take them to follow a one-mile road?" Mike exclaimed with impatience.

So cold did we become, that we returned to the lodge's now impossibly-crowded cafeteria for warmth. After a few moments more, Mike stated, "They're here! Let's go!"

The first van, scheduled to arrive at 9:00, appeared above on the single road leading to the lodge precisely on time--at 12:10! We had finally been reunited. It was something like the finale of the movie Airport '75.

Aware of my abhorrence for waking up early (in fact, I have no clocks with "a.m." numbers), Mike attempted to gently approach the subject.

A string of snags had apparently turned the two-hour drive into a four-hour one: the forgotten van keys, the late departure, the rush-hour traffic, the unscheduled stop, the loss of direction. I could only wonder what their collective mood on this "pleasure trip" had been; unfortunately, I was about to find out.

Arriving at our Mount Pocono hotel at 11:45, Mike, originator of the ski trip idea, removed his suitcase from the SUV and walked across the parking lot amid the icicle-like temperatures. Glancing at me with some responsibility and guilt, he cracked the silence, saying, "Okay. You can get your revenge some day by planning a beach trip on a hotter-than-hell day!" I would have smiled, but my mouth had been too frozen to make the movement.

Gloveless, Peter braved the slopes and the extreme cold. As of this writing (three days after the trip), the feeling had just returned to the middle finger on his right hand!

While Mike ate breakfast and I stared into oblivion across from him in my still-comatose, sleep-deprived state, I informed him that I would call George to find out their location. It was 8:15 and, according to Mike's assessment, they would be there in 45 minutes. George answered and said that they were on the Van Wyck Expressway, five miles from their origin and still more than 100 miles away. That first gloating voice rose up in me that said, I told you we didn't have to get up at 8:00!

With the luggage now reintroduced into the SUV, we drove away from the hotel. If this were the moment when one was supposed to revel in the fulfillment of a full night's sleep, I thought, then why did I feel like I had had only half of one?

Although there had been very few bonafide, experienced skiers within the group, most faced their reluctance, took the short introductory ski lesson, and commenced their initial trek down the mountain, proudly not registering a single fall. Okay, so I couldn't resist the urge to interject some fiction in the last clause. Did they fall? Indeed, like a line of tipped over dominos: George fell. Dalmin fell. Omi fell. Omar's son fell. Monica fell. George's brother fell. Jason fell. Joseph fell. Agnis fell. Janelle fell. Oh, hell! Did I imply they only fell once? Indeed, George fell again. Dalmin fell again. Omi fell again. Omar's son fell again. Monica fell again. George's brother fell again. Jason fell again. Joseph fell again. Agnis fell again. And Janelle fell again. The question had only been when,leather trousers. By the end of the day, George wore more snow than the mountain. The only one exempt from gravity's effects had been Omar, whose most dangerous position the entire day had been his self-induced "living room slouch" inside the hut--although he did manage to balance a bottle of beer.

In order to permit Abdelhalim to try his hand...actually, butt...at snow tubing, I made the boldest step into skiing danger of the entire group: I actually held his skis and poles...with both hands, mind you (!)...and prompted Damian to take my picture. Think of how good this will look, I thought, and in a year's time, no one will know the difference!

Knowing that the group would be tired and hungry after the long, early-morning drive, I advised Mike that we should set up some kind of hot breakfast in the main lodge and we proceeded to walk there. The woman behind the counter said that the breakfast items were already on display and that she could make more if we had had a large group, but "breakfast usually runs until about 10:30," she finished. It was 10:00 now. Mike assured me that they would be there "within 20 minutes or so." "So" is a short word for a long time. He obviously did not know this group the way I had.

EPILOGUE

Driving to the hut's entrance, we unloaded the car of our supplies and food. I elected to call George again in order to ascertain his location. When I hung up, I advised Mike that they had stopped for gas, but were once again enroute. He acknowledged with a nod. I paused for dramatic effect, and then advised him, "They're still in New Jersey, you know." He again launched into his contorted facial expression and my gloating internal voice again said, I told you we didn't have to get up at 8:00!

Meanwhile, on the other side of the mountain, Damian, waiting on the eternity-long snow tubing line with his Duty Manager, reverted to virtual childhood over the pending experience and was professionally advised by the same Duty Manager: "Damian, don't be afraid of the other kids! If they make a funny face at you, make a funny face back!"

During my first snow tube ascent, the lift suddenly stopped. Damian, who had been in the tube behind me, asked, "Why did it suddenly stop?

I just looked at him.

It had been at that moment that I had realized that Mike's vision had been realized--namely, that he had managed to recreate a little bit of Austria on that mountain in Pennsylvania and share the culture of his homeland with his newly-acquired American colleagues.

"Omar!" I enticed. "There's nothing like the crisp mountain air; the pure, white snow; and the exhilaration of the wind in your face as you careen down the mountain on skis."

"You didn't have to," I advised. "They're all too early!"

Kiki, known for her no-microphone-necessary boarding announcements at the airport, had launched into a venting, cursing, screaming episode targeted at Adam, responsible for the missed turn and the elongated drive, in the parking lot, an audible tirade which had carried 12 miles away to Camelback Mountain. (I recall having read the following morning that an unidentified sound of meteoric intensity had succeeded in producing its first-ever avalanche. Scientists were currently investigating the phenomenon.) Kiki, of Greek origin, certainly had the makings of a classic German.

And that was all the "enthusing" I intended to do that day!

Adam, leading the others (as always), donned his ski boots and left the hut for another negotiation of the slopes, but at 5:15, it was not to be. The two rental vans had to be returned to Manhattan by 8:30 before being assessed an additional daily charge, and if the duration of the outbound drive were any indication, they would need every minute for the journey. Reluctantly, they returned their rented ski equipment and removed their belongings from the hut, filing out to the two vans. Mike accompanied them, and the hut, now vacated, somehow seemed overwhelmingly silent and lifeless, as if robbed of spirit.

After a series of cell phone exchanges, we ascertained that they had exited Interstate 80 and would be at the lodge within ten minutes. It was now 11:30. Mike and I went to the parking lot, at the end of the approach road, to usher in the two vans, but after a freezing half hour, neither had appeared. They had telephoned again that they were at the ski resort entrance, marked by the "Big Boulder" sign and ticket booth, yet, after several more minutes, failed to appear.

During the walk from the main lodge to the hut along the perimeter of the slope, Kiki aserted, "Adam, you're not the leader!" And George went out of his way not to follow Adam. The day was really starting off well! Poor Adam, I thought. There had not been a sole who had not been pissed off with him.

Because of my resistance, I almost felt sorry for him. I said almost! After all, it was my tired butt at stake, not his.

Sadly, I had realized for the first time in the six months that I had known him that he had been delusional.

"How is your skiing going?" I asked him.

"We're headed back to the snow tubing line," I said. "Do you want to come along?"

Would we do it again? Let's put it this way: see you next year!

"We should get up at-"

"If overweight George were here," I yelled back, "I would give you a definite answer."

As the last crunch of the last tire of the last van receded in the dying light, Mike returned to the hut, breathing an external sigh that the day's preparations had finally been over, but enjoying an internal fulfillment that his ideas and efforts had brought happiness to each and every person's soul that day.

Apparently the temperature had frozen his delusionality and he had begun to think like I. And what did I think? Only that four hours of sleep had been lost for nothing!

We had braved it all: exhaustion, long journey, loss of direction, anger, upset, impatience, cold, ice, snow, aches, pain, and fall. And despite it all, we had a ball.

I looked at him and thought, The last time you had that feeling, it was gas.

Perhaps the greatest animation had been George's "child-mountain sweep." Having taken my physics-based Load Control course, he knew exactly what friction does and does not. It was the latter which applied now. Helpless to turn,Best Bay Area Bike Shops of 2010_54603., direct, redirect, or stop, he was gravity-induced down the mountain like an aircraft without wings, headed directly for two little kids. Powerless, he skied between them, swooping each one up in an arm until three humans tumbled into a singular, distinguishless, avalanche-like, white blur. He should stick to driving a bus!

"No way!" I retorted.

"I didn't even give a time," he insisted.

He turned to me. He looked at me. He burped at me.

"They have left at 7:00 and will be here in an hour," he said. I had at least thought that he would have slept off the delusion.

Joseph had replaced George as one of the van drivers when George himself had learned that he would have to negotiate roads with more than one-foot elevations (unlike the flat terrain encountered on his Florida run) and appeared through the windshield. Parking beside me, he opened the door and glared through me with two fire-projecting eyes. There followed not a preface, not a "hello," not a "kiss my toe." Instead, he launched into an uninterrupted submachine gun fire of explicates that had reduced the speed of Monica's persistent cough to a slow-motion waltz and turned my ears a shade redder than the bitter cold had been able to. I looked in the van, but none of his 15 passengers were there. I could only wonder what happened to them enroute?

We checked in at the central ticket desk and received our hut assignment, a singular, wooden structure complete with tables, chairs, and sofas at the base of the slopes with the somehow-inappropriate name of "Flight Line."

This expose is not,Apple iPad 3rd Generation online shopping, mind you, an attempt to judge: we all have something and you have to love them. But all day long...!

"How about-"

"Okay," I said, "I experienced it" and turned round and went back to bed.

"We have to discuss when we're going to get up tomorrow," he stated with some trepidation.

When I informed Mike, he made a contorted facial gesture with his mouth for which there is no English adjective equivalent. "I'm sure they will be here by 10:00," he returned. It was at this moment that I had wished that I had brought my updated list of psychiatrists. Early delusional detection is the best cure,status fashion wear., you knoif you want to draw in the crowd, how could you not get these Christian Louboutin shoes.

"No," he responded, "I don't see them. I just know they're here. I feel it."

"That's too early," I spat.

During my second descent, the snow tube, again preceding Damian's, launched off the mountain and rotated 180 degrees so that I watched Damian recede to miniaturization, making the entire drop backwards. So fast did it careen toward the bottom, that the first arresting pad did nothing to stop it, while the second snagged it and flipped it over, spilling me upside down on to the ice. Dazed, I stood up and searched for my lost hat. Unbeknownst to me at the time, little Moniquita had lurked somewhere within the crowd and had witnessed the entire event. Where was her cough now? At least it would have alerted me to her presence. As I returned to the hut, three people stopped me to comment on the maneuver. I had never met any of them!
Abdelhalim, who had left the group to purchase batteries in the lodge's gift shop, surfaced several hours later on skis, seemingly frozen in motion.

The winners of the ten awards, from the luxury brands trade body, will be announced November 19 at the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by British actor, Anthony Head.

"The group will be here at 9:00."

Julia Carrick, chief executive of Walpole said: “This year’s award nominees represent some of the most exciting and dynamic companies in the luxury industry.

We walked the mile from the lobby to the very large, sofa-adorned room, and immediately looked through the window to admire the mountain view. Instead, we saw the heating unit belonging to the next room.

Again, I just looked at him.

Take George, long known for his grueling, bumpy, back-road, low-fare bus service to Florida, as one of the van drivers; Adam, consistently seeking to act out his "ground pilot" fantasy, as the other van driver; Sidonie, whose list of alter-names is so long no one any longer remembers her real one; Annie, as resident grump; Joseph, whose anger diffusion is so profuse that it could easily melt the snow on the far side of the mountain; and Monica, whose persistent, ubiquitous cough has approached a frequency equitable with that of rapid submachine gun fire; and you have the makings of a day-long, company-related, synergistic melange superficially described as a "mid-winter ski trip to the Pocono Mountains."

The awards not only highlight the achievements of well established global luxury brands but help provide recognition for young emerging brands. We look forward to revealing the winners at the Banqueting House later this month.”

The author drove home with Mike and, after writing this story, slept for a weeThe Christian Louboutin shoes features should not be underestimated.

The left turn at the entrance to Big Boulder Ski Resort took us round the frozen, mirror-like Lake Harmony for the minute-long drive to the green, wooden lodge, backed by the numerous slopes leading to it.

"I do," he responded. However, despite all efforts to initiate motion, he only succeeded in digging a trench into the snow which went half way to China, and ultimately raised his two poles, allowing Damian and I to grab them and pull him like a pair of Central Park horses. We passed George and Joseph in this tri-unit configuration and I yelled out to them, pointing to Abdelhalim, "Pathetic, isn't it?"

Morning's light infringed itself round the edges of the curtain in a way I found as welcoming as overweight George in a starving country. There he sat, "the Mike," on the sofa, dressed and ready to go. I got out of bed, passed him, and asked, "This is 8:00 a.m.?"

He nodded.

"How do you know this?" I asked, puzzled. "Do you see them?"